Connection Across Time

As a country that always seems to have our hands in every other country's business (see Libya), I think that there is a lot to be learned from World War I on we deal with foreign conflict. The Treaty of Versailles failed miserably because the defeated country did not get to have a say in the terms of the treaty. Germany was not at the Congress of Versailles. The way the allied powers handled peace terms after World War I is a perfect example of what not to do. The terms of a treaty should be decided based on what is best suitable for creating a lasting peace, not what can best serve the defeated country proper revenge. The reasoning for this is that it sets the country up to come back with another war e.g. Nazi Germany, World War II.

Spotlight On: Finnish Civil War

The Finnish Civil War was caused largely by the social turmoil in Europe created by World War I. The war itself was fought from January 27 to May 15, 1918 between two groups who became known as the "reds" and the "whites." The Reds, who were backed by Bolshevik Russia, were Social Democrats, led by the People's Deputation of Finland. The whites, who received assistance from the German Empire, were the nonsocialist force. However, tensions had been growing in and around Finland for years before world War I. One of the most dividing factors was the Bolshevik takeover in Russia.

The Bolshevik takeover in Novemeber 1917 brought emotions in Finland to a boiling point. On one side of the spectrum, there were the middle classes, who feared radical socialism, suspecting that it would destroy their way of life. Works, however, were inspired by the revolution and embodied this spirit with the Finnish Worker's general strike of November 14. For fourty-eight hours, workers controlled the state. Some of the most radical strikers even proposed a full seizure of power. During the two days of striking, there were numerous armed clashes between White Guards and Red Guards.

Following the genral strike, it was clear that the White Guards had an upper hand in the fighting due to weapon shipments from Germany. As a result, a government with heavy middle-class influence was established under the leadership of Pehr Evind Svinhufvud, and on Decmber 6, 1917, Finland declared itself an independent state. Before the war, Finland had been a Grand Duchy of the Russian Empire. Svinhufvud's government demonstrated that it would have zero tolerance for socialist influencinf by making the Whote Guard a state security force. The atmosphere of poltiocal violence, class tensions, and mistrust ws so strong in Finland buy January 1918, that civil war was inevitable.

Despite having nearly twice the army size of the Whites, the Reds faced a number of disadvantages throughout the war that would lead to them losing in the end. The Reds had poor leadership, training, and equipment, as well as food shortages. The Whites had professional leadership and this was one of the reasons they won the war. Mannerheim, who was the official military leader of the whites, was an experienced soldier who understood large scale operations. His strategic judgement guided the whites almost flawlessly. Some of the decisive battles were fought at Tampere, Viipuri, and Helnski, all of which were won by a combined White and German force.

The civil war was clearly  one of the most catastrophic events in FInnish history. Over 37,000 people were killed, but only one fourth of these deaths occured on the battlefield. The rest came as a result of executions detention camps created during poltical terror campaigns. The war divided society so much that there was even argument over what to call the it. Whites wanted it to be called a "War for Independence," while the Reds insisted that it was a civil war. Following the defeat of the German Empire in World War I, the Finnish people retained their independence, and slowly, Finland was reunited through poltical compromise, though the socialism question remained relevant in Finland up through the Cold War.

US Event: National Park Service

Since 1872 the United States National Park System has grown from a single, public reservation called Yellowstone National Park to embrace over 450 natural, historical, recreational, and cultural areas throughout the United States, its territories, and island possessions. On August 25, 1916, Congress passed the National Park Service Organic Act, which created the US Federal Agency know as the National Park Service. It manages all national parks and monuments. The government recognized a need for an agency to oversee the growing system of national parks that had been increasing ever since the beginning of the second half of the nineteenth century. A better system of management was thus implemented. Meanwhile, countries around the world were doing similar things, realizing that their national parks needed better management. From 1914 to 1920, conservationists in New Zealand began
to take notice of the damage that non-native free-roaming goats, who had been released into Tongariro National Park in the early twentieth century, were causing to the ecosystem of Mt. Egmont. This horrified scientists who thought parks should be sanctuaries for native plants and animals. The idea that national parks should protect New Zealand species caught on, prompting conservationists to lobby for two more parks and finally the National Parks Act in 1952.

US Event: National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

On March 3, 1915, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics was founded to undertake, promote, and institutionalize aeronautic research in the United States. By the early 1920s, it had adopted the new and more ambitious mission of promoting military and civilian aviation through applied research that looked beyond current needs. NACA researchers used their collection of wind tunnels, engine test stands, and flight test facilities to pursue their mission. Commercial and military clients were also permitted to use these facilities for their own research on a contract basis. By 1938, what began as a ten person committee with a budget of $5,000 per person had developed into a group of 426 researchers encouraged not only to complete formal assignments, but to pursue unauthorized "bootleg" research. The result was a number of breakthroughs and inventions that are still in use in aviation today. These include, but are not limited to, NACA engine cowl, NACA airfoil, and the "area rule" for supersonic aircraft. NACA also claims credit for having the first plane to break the sound barrier. The NACA project was significant because it provided a model for other European countries that would conduct similar research during World War II. Also, NACA airfoils are still used on planes that take off all over the world.


In 1958, the committee was dissolved. Its personnel and facilities were transferred to the newly created National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA). This decision was made in oder to keep up with the Soviet Union during the space race.

"It is of great urgency and importance to our country both from consideration of our prestige as a nation as well as military necessity that this challenge (referring to Sputnik) be met by an energetic program of research and development for the conquest of space

It is accordingly proposed that the scientific research be the responsibility of a national civilian agency working in close cooperation with the applied research and development groups required for weapon systems development by the military.
The pattern to be followed is that already developed by the NACA and the military services...


The NACA is capable, by rapid extension and expansion of its effort, of providing leadership in space technology." -Dr. Hugh Dryden, 1958,NASA Deputy Administrator

Art: Over There

This is Over There, a popular song written in 1917 by George M. Cohan along with a famous recording by Nora Bayes. The lyrics of the song epitomize the patriotic spirit that existed in America during the first world war. This patriotic spirit was created largely by the "total war" effort that the United States' government had been pushing. The enthusiasm of American citizens about the war was great because it boosted the economy and helped the military when people bought war bonds. In 1936, Cohan was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor for this song and others.

Chorus lyrics:

Over there, over there,

Send the word, send the word over there

That the Yanks are coming, the Yanks are coming

The drums rum-tumming everywhere.

So prepare, say a prayer,

Send the word, send the word to beware -

We'll be over, we're coming over,

And we won't come back till it's over, over there.

Art: A Taube

This is A Taube by English painter Christopher R.W. Nevinson. During the Great War, aircraft became an instrument of war for the first time. One of the things planes were used for during World War I was bombings. Often, these aerial bombing raids would be carried out against not just military targets, but civilian targets. The Taube was one of the earliest bombing planes developed by Germany, and it was used to drop bombs right on top of population centers. With this painting, Nevinson denounces the German airforce - the Taube and its attacks against civilian populations - even though such attacks were more often carried out by airships such as the Zeppelin, and allied planes carried out bombing raids against German towns just as frequently. Perhaps the artist is trying to make a statement against war, due to the cruel consequences it brings about.

Art: La mitrailleuse en action

This is La mitrailleuse en action (The Machine Gun in Action) by French artist Henri Gaudier-Brzeska. This work clearly makes a statement about the changing ways in which battles were being fought. Now, wars were not only based on the numbers and skill of the soldiers that countries had, but the quality and quantity of the machinery that could be produced by the countries. One of these pieces of machinery that proved to be so important in the war was the machine gun. With countries producing more and more advanced technologies to fight wars, battles became not so much man fighting man as machine fighting machine. The man became less important as the machine he was operating became more important. The artist expresses this idea in his work by reducing the man in the painting to simple geometric shapes.

Important People: Alfred von Tirpitz

Alfred von Tirpitz served as a German Admiral during World War I, and was Secretary of State of the German Imperial Naval Office from 1897 to 1916. Tirpitz played a major role in shaping the aggressive political course taken by Germany. Expressing the interests of the German imperialists, he was a strong proponent of the naval arms race. Tirpitz worked to develop a strong navy that would be capable of challenging the British Navy and of serving as a tool for German imperialists to find "their place under the sun." Tirpitz regarded Great Britain as Germany’s biggest enemy and called for an alliance with Japan and the neutralization of Russia. During World War I, Tirpitz was a supporter of the air bombings of industrial centers of Britain and of unrestricted submarine warfare. The latter was an issue that caused the United States to get involved in the war. Tirpitz was significant for influencing Germany's aggressive policies of the early twentieth century as well as getting America into the war.

Tirpitz was forced to resign in 1916 due to his aggressive policies that many German leaders, even Wilhelm II, found to radical.

In 1919, Tirpitz published his Memoirs, in which he blamed Germany’s defeat on the failure of the political leadership to make sufficient use of the German Navy. He said: 

"It was, and is, an illusion, however, to think that the English would have treated us any better, and have allowed our economic growth to have proceeded unchecked if we had had no fleet. They would have certainly told us to stop much sooner."

The following link provides an audio clip in which Tirpitz outlines arguments in favor of U-boat warfare. The entire thing is in German, and unfortunately, I could not find a translation.

http://www.firstworldwar.com/audio/Alfred_von_Tirpitz_-_U-Boat_Warfare.mp3

Important People: Kaiser Wilhelm II

Kaiser Wilhelm II was the emperor of Germany during WWI, and also happened to be the last German Emperor. His first major political move was dismissing Chancellor Otto Von Bismarck. Wilhelm II, convinced of this divine right to rule, was not satisfied with ruling alongside Bismarck, who he felt was not nearly aggressive enough of a leader. With Bismarck out of the way, Wilhelm II was able to impose his militaristic policies of naval armament and a colonial empire for Germany. Although these policies were great for German national pride, they put a strain on the delicate alliance system among Germany's neighbors that Bismarck had fought so hard to create.

The failure to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia in 1893 and negotiate a settlement with Britain was evidence of the breaking down of the alliance system. France sided with Russia with the Dual Alliance of 1894, ensuring that f war should break out, Germany would have to fight on two fronts. This drove Wilhelm II into an alliance with the Austro-Hungarian Empire, drawing Germany into a tumultuous Balkan region, and putting even more strain on relations with Russia.

Wilhelm II most certainly escalated the crisis of 1914 by providing Austria with a blank check. The Kaiser also stated publicly that it was "now or never for the Austrians." These two things drove Austria to declare war on Russia, creating a much bigger conflict. The political environment that Kaiser Wilhelm II created in Europe was most certainly conductive of the outbreak of war. Through his nationalistic and militaristic policies, Wilhelm II effectively destroyed all the alliances that Bismarck had created just a few years before. If the assassination of Ferdinand was the spark that set off the war, than Wilhelm's foreign policy was the fuel. Thus, Kaiser Wilhelm II deserves to be recognized as one of the most influential people of the time period.

Important People: General John J. Pershing

John "Black Jack" Pershing was a general officer in the United States Army during the Indian Wars, Spanish-American War, Phillipine-American War, Russo-Japanese War, and World War I on the western front. After graduating from West Point in 1886, Pershing swiftly rose through the ranks and became only person to be promoted in his own lifetime to the highest rank ever held in the United States Army - General of the Armies. Following the United States' declaration of War on Germany, Pershing was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF). Pershing successfully led the AEF in the Second Battle of the Marne, which resulted in a victory for the allies that was a turing point in the war on the western front. Pershing's troops also took part in the breach of the Hindenburg line. Many of America's successes in World War I are credited to Pershing. An inspirational leader, he is regarded as a mentor by the generation of American generals who led the United States Army during World War II including Dwight D. Eisenhower and George S. Patton. Pershing is significant to the time period because he is one of the most influential military leaders of the century.

Pershing was such a great leader, that Arthur Guiterman was inspired to write a poem about him entitled "Pershing at the Front," which is an ironic title considering Pershing biggest piece of criticism is that he commanded from far behind the lines. The poem is about a group of soldiers led by Pershing moving up through trenches, closer and closer to "no man's land." The poem continues, but these are the first two stanzas:

The General came in a new tin hat

To the shell-torn front where the war was at;

With a faithful Aide at his good right hand

He made his way toward No Man’s Land,

And a tough Top Sergeant there they found,

And a Captain, too, to show them round.

Threading the ditch, their heads bent low,

Toward the lines of the watchful foe

They came through the murk and the powder stench

Till the Sergeant whispered, “Third-line trench!”

And the Captain whispered, “Third-line trench!”

And the Aide repeated, “Third-line trench!”

And Pershing answered- not in French-

“Yes, I see it. Third-line trench.”

What a cool guy!

The Most Unimportant Man of the Time Period

This is Herman P. Ullrich, the most unimportant man of World War I. Herman was born in Britain in 1875, and grew up there in a lower class household. He never enlisted in the military, for he never had any desire to fight. Herman didn't vote, and he didn't like to follow the news. He had no particular interest in foreign affairs and if asked, could probably not find Serbia on a map of Europe. If Herman wasn't at home with his family, or chatting on the street corner with some friends about Manchester's latest football match, you could almost certainly find him at his monotonous job. Herman operated a machine at a metal smelting plant. His sole responsibility was pressing the button that caused a press to come down and form a conical piece of aluminum. He must have pressed that button thousands of times each day. Herman didn't know what happened to that piece of metal, and frankly he didn't care. At the end of the week, he got his pay check, which was never much, and went on with his life. Such was the life of Herman P. Ullrich, the lower class British factory worker.

Obviously, this is an ironic story used to point out how even the most seemingly insignificant individual can have an impact on large scale events like World War I. Little did Herman know that the conical pieces of aluminum were actually being shipped off to another factory were artillery shells were being manufactured for the war. All over Europe, and even in America, the concept of total war was being implemented. Governments began to control economic affairs in order to make the greatest possible military effort. All types of military supplies were in huge demand. Because of this, not a single part of the production process could be overlooked. Herman P. Ullrich was actually much more important to the war cause than he could ever know.

(This story is entirely fictional.)

Introduction

This blog, "The War to End All Wars," will cover the events of World War I and chapter 27 from the A History of Western Society textbook.

It is said that all modern wars are started by a combination of four things (or five depending on which acronym suits your fancy) - militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism. In the summer of 1914, each one of these "forces of war" came together and culminated into what would be arguably the most long, indecisive, and tremendously destructive war of the twentieth century, or quite possibly the history of European culture. Unlike other wars, World War I had cultural, economic, social, political, and intellectuals repercussions that influenced not only Europe but the entire world. During the five years that the war was fought and peace was settled, Europe changed drastically. Historic empires fell and imperialism and radical nationalism was crushed*. Though the first World War was not the war to end all wars, although my blog's title would disagree, it had a huge impact on modern society and certainly deserves to be studied.

*However, certain African and Asian peoples would disagree with this statement. Outside of Europe, imperialism was going strong!

Through this blog, I hope to better understand and display my knowledge of the causes, impacts, and artistic responses to the first World War. I also hope to show relevant connections between the events that were taking place in America at the time of the war.

Essential Question: Who should be blamed for starting World War I?

The blame for World War I has been a matter of intense debate over the past century. Essentially there are three sides. One group of people believes that no one country in particular should be blamed for the war. While it is true that the entire blame cannot be placed on one country, certain countries had a greater influence on the start of the war than others. Another group of people believe that Austria-Hungary is to blame for the war. Once Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated, Austria-Hungary looked for no other possibility but war to solve the problem of the Slavic Nationalist movement. Austria wanted a small, localized war, not the much larger scale war the Germany blew it up into. Austria would never have even gotten involved in such a war had it not been for the promise of financial assistance from the Hapsburgs. The Germans were the facilitators of the Austrian War effort. Germany was also the first Great power to declare war on another when she declared war on Russia. Also, Germany's invasion of France was entirely unprovoked. Therefore, Germany is primarily responsible for the escalation of the Austro-Serbian War into World War I.